Hammurabi, first ruler of the Babylonian empire, holds the claim of restoring order and justice to Mesopotamia. Although Hammurabi did conquer other city-states to expand his empire, he let the rulers of the cities-states live and justly ruled the people with fair laws. Hammurabi wanted his subjects to obey him because they liked him and believed he made just, fair laws and not because they were apprehensive of his formidable military. In about 1786 B.C. he wrote 282 laws governing family, criminal punishment, civil law, ethics, business, prices, trade, and every other aspect of ancient life known as “the Code of Hammurabi” which he set up where everyone could read them. No one had ever set up a code of law to this extent before even though there had been several attempts over the previous 400 years. Introducing this early form of law, he boasted of his purpose: “to promote the welfare of the people, I, Hammurabi, the devout, god-fearing prince, cause justice to prevail in the land by destroying the wicked and the evil, that the strong might not oppress the weak.” Although Hammurabi had right motives for producing these laws that he believed Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, had given him the commission to write, many of the laws seemed strict, harsh and, cruel. Two examples of the severity and harshness of some of the punishments for lawbreaking follow: “If a son strikes his father, they shall cut off his forehand.” “If any one steals the minor son of another, he shall be put to death.”⁵ Some laws favored the people with a higher social status although they did attempt to provide justice for every class. For example: “If a man strikes the cheek of a freeman who is superior in rank to himself, he shall be beaten with 60 stripes with a whip of ox-hide in the assembly.”

Although opinions vary on exactly when Hammurabi lived and the important dates of his reign, most scholars believe Hammurabi began his rule of Babylon in 1792 B.C. and died in 1750 B.C. Hammurabi was the sixth king over the city of Babylon, but once he defeated Sumer, Akkad, and other city-states to the south of Babylon around 1760 B.C., he claimed the title of the first king of the Babylonian empire. Eventually, his empire covered most parts of Mesopotamia. His main claim to fame, the Code of Hammurabi, was written in about 1786 B.C. Besides this, Hammurabi also did other things to improve his empire, namely, he improved the irrigation process. He also strongly encouraged astronomy, mathematics, and literature. Sadly, once Hammurabi died, the Babylonian empire that he worked so hard to build and improve collapsed due to military pressure from the Hittites under the rule of Mursilis I. Eventually, the Kassites, under the command of Agumkakrine, came to rule Babylon and some of the former, gargantuan empire for 400 years. Interestingly enough, they obeyed and respected the Code of Hammurabi. Much later, God used the Babylonians to correct and discipline the people of Judah when they were taken captive into Babylon in 586 B.C.

There are also some interesting speculations showing some parallels between the Bible and the life and laws of Hammurabi. One theme concept in both the Levitical law and the Code of Hammurabi that repeat themselves again and again are, namely: “eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, bruise for bruise (Exodus 21:24-25).” Although Hammurabi did not know it, the principles in his laws reflected the Biblical principle of sowing and reaping as found in Galatians 6:7 and Proverbs 22:8: “Do not be deceived, God cannot be mocked. A man reaps what he sows” (Galatians 6:7). “He who sows wickedness reaps trouble (Proverbs 22:8a).”

Another speculation made by some Bible scholars is that Nimrod, mentioned in the Bible, could be Hammurabi, since they both had similar military exploits, and because the name “Hammurabi” could be interpreted “Ham the Great”. According to the Bible, Nimrod was Ham’s (the son of Noah) grandson. Some argue that since Hammurabi lived about the same time as Abraham and the patriarchs, and Moses lived about 400 years after Abraham, Moses must have just borrowed and revised the Code of Hammurabi to fit the needs of Israel rather than God Himself writing the Levitical Law and Ten Commandments. “According to Genesis 26 'God had revealed a legal code to someone, for Abraham lived under it; because that Abraham obeyed my voice, and kept my charge, my commandments, my statutes and my laws.' Originally Abraham lived in Babylonia. God called him out of that heathen environment and brought him into the kingdom of Melchizedek, whose capitol was Salem, the ancient name of Jerusalem. Melchizedek was king and 'priest of God Most High.' Since he was sovereign of the Kingdom of God on earth, as it existed at that time, the laws and statutes enforced were probably the laws mentioned in Genesis 26:5. 'It is reasonable to suppose that Hammurabi was aquatinted with this primitive revelation and saw the value of certain laws. These he copied and incorporated into his code.”

One of the major differences, however, between Melchizedek’s law and the Code of Hammurabi is that Hammurabi based his on human wisdom (and perhaps a demon’s influence: note his reference to Marduk in the introduction of his code of law) while Melchizedek based his law on love and the worship and honor of God. Although each of these is only a speculation, they do help set the stage for Hammurabi’s life and reign and draw some conclusions worth digging deeper for more positive answers to further prove the historical accuracy and truth in the Bible.

In conclusion, Hammurabi, first king of the Babylonian empire, became most famous for writing the first, detailed code of laws and for uniting the war-torn, chaotic Mesopotamia under a just, fair rule. He began his rule of Babylon in about 1792 B.C. and eventually conquered most of Mesopotamia and added it to the Babylonian Empire. Following his death in about 1750 B.C., however, his kingdom fell into barbarian hands who, surprisingly, respected his code of law. To stage his life in comparison with Biblical events, Abraham and the patriarchs lived at about the same time as Hammurabi. Although Hammurabi had good motives for writing his just but strict code of law, he based them all on his own human wisdom, which, just like the rest of us, becomes subject to fallacy and error.

The History of Scissors

Permanently sharp, Never need sharpening! These words proclaim the virtues of a new generation of scissors—good news, yet a slightly sad epitaph for an essential and treasured tool invented many centuries ago. Like many early tools, made with great effort and time one by one, scissors were clearly treasured by their owners. Until the Industrial Revolution, most of the objects needed for daily life like paper, cloth, metal, pottery, ceramic and glass objects were made by single craftsmen and craftswomen and their helpers.

Many last names we take for granted today were acquired originally as descriptions of crafts and trades: Goldsmith, Weaver, Taylor, Fuller, Baker, Skinner, Potter, Smith, Tinker, Wheeler and Wag(o)ner. The objects they made were created to last a long time if not a lifetime. Metal objects were therefore incised with elaborate designs; both blades and handles reflected whimsy and art, as well as utility. The idea that their work was sufficiently cheap and available that it could be thrown away and easily replaced would have struck them as utter madness.

Scissors in Egypt

Researchers into the history of scissors generally agree that scissors were invented in Egypt around 1500 B.C.E. and were first fashioned of bronze, spreading slowly through the rest of the ancient world through trade and exploration. These early scissors were, as best archeologists can determine, made of a single piece of metal. They were mechanically two levers joined by a loop which served as a fulcrum.

Each sharpened level was a scissor, and the pair was called, scissors. On about 100 A.D. Roman craftsmen developed cross-blade scissors. That is, the blade-edges crossed and slid past each other when cutting. The looping fulcrum remained. Even now, gardening catalogs in the U.S. and Britain offer grass-edging shears that demonstrated the cross-blade principle. Like the Roman model, these scissors rested in an open position after use.

Creating Modern Scissors

As is the case with so many early tools, the question of modification and innovation remains in the dark. At some point, someone clearly realized that greater control with less hand strength could be obtained by separating the scissors into two pieces anchoring them with a screw or rivet and making loops for fingers.

Looking at old scissors suggests that for a number of centuries, depending on the country of origin, both designs coexisted with craftsmen and purchasers deciding which design served specific purposes: cutting grapevines, thin sheets of metal, paper, thread and cloth. The final step in creating modern scissors is documented. In London in 1761 Robert Hinchcliffe developed the method for steel-casting scissors. What he produced took the form we recognize today.

Windows 7

Originally, a version of Windows codenamed Blackcomb was planned as the successor to Windows XP (codename Whistler) and Windows Server 2003. Major features were planned for Blackcomb, including an emphasis on searching and querying data and an advanced storage system named WinFS to enable such scenarios. However, an interim, minor release, codenamed "Longhorn," was announced for 2003, delaying the development of Blackcomb. By the middle of 2003, however, Longhorn had acquired some of the features originally intended for Blackcomb. After three major viruses exploited flaws in Windows operating systems within a short time period in 2003, Microsoft changed its development priorities, putting some of Longhorn's major development work on hold while developing new service packs for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Development of Longhorn (Windows Vista) was also restarted, and thus delayed, in August 2004. A number of features were cut from Longhorn.
Blackcomb was renamed Vienna in early 2006 and again Windows 7 in 2007. In 2008, it was announced that Windows 7 would also be the official name of the operating system. There has been some confusion over naming the product Windows 7, while versioning it as 6.1 to indicate its similar build to Vista and increase compatibility with applications that only check major version numbers, similar to Windows 2000 and Windows XP both having 5.x version numbers.
The first external release to select Microsoft partners came in January 2008 with Milestone 1, build 6519. At PDC 2008, Microsoft demonstrated Windows 7 with its reworked taskbar. Copies of Windows 7 build 6801 were distributed at the end of the conference; however, the demonstrated taskbar was disabled in this build.
On December 27, 2008, Windows 7 Beta was leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent. According to a performance test by ZDNet, Windows 7 Beta beat both Windows XP and Vista in several key areas; including boot and shutdown time and working with files, such as loading documents. Other areas did not beat XP; including PC Pro benchmarks for typical office activities and video editing, which remain identical to Vista and slower than XP. On January 7, 2009, the 64-bit version of the Windows 7 Beta (build 7000) was leaked onto the web, with some torrents being infected with a trojan. At CES 2009, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer announced the Windows 7 Beta, build 7000, had been made available for download to MSDN and TechNet subscribers in the format of an ISO image. The Beta was to be publicly released January 9, 2009, and Microsoft initially planned for the download to be made available to 2.5 million people on this date. However, access to the downloads was delayed because of high traffic. The download limit was also extended, initially until January 24, then again to February 10. People who did not complete downloading the beta had two extra days to complete the download. After February 12, unfinished downloads became unable to complete. Users could still obtain product keys from Microsoft to activate their copies of Windows 7 Beta, which expired on August 1, 2009.
The release candidate, build 7100, became available for MSDN and TechNet subscribers and Connect Program participants on April 30, 2009. On May 5, 2009 it became available to the general public, although it had also been leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent. The release candidate was available in five languages and expired on June 1, 2010, with shutdowns every two hours starting March 1, 2010. Microsoft stated that Windows 7 would be released to the general public on October 22, 2009. Microsoft released Windows 7 to MSDN and Technet subscribers on August 6, 2009, at 10:00 a.m. PDT. Microsoft announced that Windows 7, along with Windows Server 2008 R2, was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009. Windows 7 RTM is build 7600.16385, which was compiled on July 13, 2009, and was declared the final RTM build after passing all Microsoft's tests internally.
Windows 7 is written in C, C++, and assembly.

Philippine Mythology

Philippine mythology and folklore include a collection of tales and superstitions about magical creatures and entities. Some Filipinos, even though heavily westernized and Christianized, still believe in such entities. The prevalence of belief in the figures of Philippines mythology is strong in the provinces.

Because the country has many islands and is inhabited by different ethnic groups, Philippine mythology and superstitions are very diverse. However, certain similarities exist among these groups, such as the belief in Heaven (kaluwalhatian, kalangitan, kamurawayan), Hell (impiyerno, kasamaan), and the human soul (kaluluwa).

Philippine mythology is derived from Philippine folk literature, which is the traditional oral literature of the Filipino people. This refers to a wide range of material due to the ethnic mix of the Philippines. Each unique ethnic group has its own stories and myths to tell.

While the oral and thus changeable aspect of folk literature is an important defining characteristic, much of this oral tradition had been written into a print format. To point out that folklore in a written form can still be considered folklore, Utely pointed out that folklore "may appear in print, but must not freeze into print." It should be pointed out that all the examples of folk literature cited in this article are taken from print, rather than oral sources.

University of the Philippines professor, Damiana Eugenio, classified Philippines Folk Literature into three major groups: folk narratives, folk speech, and folk songs. Folk narratives can either be in prose: the myth, the alamat (legend), and the kuwentong bayan (folktale), or in verse, as in the case of the folk epic. Folk speech includes the bugtong (riddle) and the salawikain (proverbs). Folk songs that can be sub-classified into those that tell a story (folk ballads) are a relative rarity in Philippine folk literature. These form the bulk of the Philippines' rich heritage of folk songs.

The Philippines had cultural ties with India through the other Indianized kingdoms of Southeast Asia for a considerable amount of time prior to the 16th century. Ancient Filipino literature and folklore show the impress of India. The Agusan legend of a man named Manubo Ango, who was turned into stone, resembles the story of Ahalya in the Hindu epic Ramayana. The tale of the Ifugao legendary heroBalituk, who obtained water from the rock with his arrow, is similar to Arjuna's adventure inMahabharata, another Hindu epic. The Ramayana have different versions among the many Philippine ethnic groups. The Ilocanos have the story of Lam-Ang. The Darangan, or Maharadia Lawana, is theMaranao version of the Ramayana. A lot of indigenous beliefs and mythology were either influenced by Sanskrit terms used in Hinduism (whether superimposed onto similar indigenous beliefs or imported into the belief system), or indirectly infuenced by Hinduism via neighboring Southeast Asian kingdoms.

The stories of ancient Philippine mythology include deities, creation stories, mythical creatures, and beliefs. Ancient Philippine mythology varies among the many indigenous tribes of the Philippines. Some groups during the pre-Spanish conquest era believed in a single Supreme Being who created the world and everything in it, while others chose to worship a multitude of tree and forest deities (diwatas). Diwatas came from the Sanskrit word devata which means "deity", one of the several significant Hindu influences in the Pre-Hispanic religion of the ancientFilipinos. Below are some of the gods and goddesses of the ancient Philippines:

Ancient Tagalog Deities:

• Bathala- the Supereme Being and Creator, also addressed as Maykapal (Meicapal-Creator) or Bathalang Maykapal. Some authorities claim that his name was originated from Sanskrit word “bhatarra” which means “noble or great”. During the Spanish Colonization Bathala was identified by the friars to the Christian God while the anitos who served him were demonized and replaced by saints, he was the only ancient Tagalog deity that was never demonized. However according to Isabelo de los Reyes the correct name of the God of the ancient Tagalogs was not Bathala nor he was ever called Bathalang Maykapal, but simply Maykapal also Meygawa or May-ari the lord of the earth. In Noceda-Sanlucar Vocabulary Bathala is given as "the principal of all the anitos or gods" (Bathala- El principal de los anitos o dioses, de quien decian que crio todas las cosas. Noceda-Sanlucar, 1860).

• Lakampati (Lacapati/Lacanpate) - the major fertility deity of the ancient Tagalogs. Farmers with their children brought offerings for him at the fields and invoke him to protect them from famine. Some sources also said that foods and words are offered to him by his devotees asking for "water" for their fields and "fish" when they set sail in the sea for fishing. Lakampati was a hermaphrodite deity and was commented by some authors and friars as “the hermaphrodite devil who satisfies his carnal appetite with men and women”. He is identified to the ancient Zambal goddess Ikapati although he/she also has a characteristics similar to other Zambal deities such as Anitong Tawo, Dumangan, Damulag, Kalasokus, and Kalaskas.

• Pati - According to Ferdinand Blumentritt the Igorots call the rain Pati and look upon him as a merciful divinity to whom they directed their prayers. According to Dr. D. Sinibaldo Mas, the anito of the rain is called Pati by the Ifugaos.

• Lakambakod (Lachan Bacor) – a phallic god who was the protector of the growing crops and healer of diseases. His name literally means “great/noble fence”, from Lakan (a title of nobility) + bakod (fence) according to Diksyunaryo-Tesauro Pilipino-Ingles by J.V. Panganiban. Some sources claim him to be a protector of houses.

• Idiyanale (Idianale) – the god of animal husbandry and aquaculture, he was often mistaken as an agricultural deity.

• Amansinaya (Aman Sinaya) – the patron god of fishermen, he was appealed when the fishing net were cast.

• Amanikable (Ama ni Cable/Ama ni Coable) – the patron god of hunters, he was often mistaken as a sea deity.

• Diyan Masalanta (Dian Masalanta) – The goddess of love, fecundity and childbirth, patroness goddess of lovers and gentlemen. Her name literally means “be destroyed there”.

• Apolaki (Apolaqui) – the ancient Pangasinenses worshipped him as their supreme deity addressed as Ama-Gaoley or Anagaoley(Supreme Father) whom they invoke for various matters such as war, trade and travel. They offered oils, incenses, and other aromatic herbs to his idol/images, slaves and pigs was also sacrificed in his honor. He was Identified to Suku a deity of ancient Pampangans which associated him to the sun. Based on historical records, there is no hard evidence that he was also worshiped by the ancient Tagalogs, he is often not listed (just like Mayari) to the pantheon of anitos that ancient Tagalogs worshiped. In some informal and modern folktale version based on Pampangan Mythology his sister was Mayari a Zambal deity and their father was Bathala which is a Tagalog deity, this probably caused the misconception.

• Mayari (Mallari) – She/He was worshipped by the Negritos of Zambales as their chief deity in which the “bayoc” (high priest) was the only one allowed to make offerings and sacrifices to him/her. Mayari seems to be the only one represented by an actual idol among the Zambal pantheon, a wooden head with a straw body and arms, constructed and clothed by the bayoc for the occasion. In Spanish records her/his name was spelled "Mallari" which was misread/mispronounced by some Filipinos as Mal-yah-ree instead of Mah-yah-ree, because in Spanish language "lla" should be pronounced as "yah" just like the word villa (correct pronunciation is "vee-yah" not veel-yah) or caballo (cah-bah-yoh). Based on historical records, there is no hard evidence that she/he was also worshiped by the ancient Tagalogs, so as Anitong Tawo and Dumangan. In Pampangan mythology he/she was a sibling of Suku, he/she was also associated to the moon based on that mythology, in some informal and modern folktale version based on the said myth his/her brother was Apolaki a Pangasinense deity and their father was Bathala which is a Tagalog deity, this probably caused the misconception. The ancient Tagalogs do venerate the moon, however there is no recoded evidence that they deified it as Mayari.

• Lakambini (Lacambui) – An obscure goddess often called by the Spaniards as “abogado de la garganta” (the throat advocate), although some sources clearly defined her as the giver of foods. Lakambini literally means “great/noble dame”, from Lakan (a title of nobility) + bini (dame) according to Diksyunaryo-Tesauro Pilipino-Ingles by J.V. Panganiban. Lakambini became a Filipino word equivalent to English “muse” or “princess”.

• Lingga (Linga) – the god who was the center of Kasilonawan, a fertility rite and festivity which existed in this generation in Christianized form. He was also said to be invoke to cure diseases. Other sources claim however that he and the bibits (ancestral ghost) were lesser deities who caused illness if not given recognition in the ordinary course of daily activities. Being obviously a phallic deity derived from India, he is possibly a variant of Lakambakod.

• Mangkukutod (Mancucutor) – the patron god of a particular class of ancient Tagalogs, but the traditions were very obscure.

• Anitong Tawo (Aniton Tavo) – the god of the wind and of rain of the ancient Zambal. The name literally means “man god or demigod”. He received the most important sacrifices among the deities invoked for good crops.

Mencius

Mencius (Chinese: 孟子; Zhuyin/Bopomofo: ㄇㄥˋ ㄗ˙; pinyin: Mèng Zǐ; Wade-Giles: Meng Tzu), most accepted dates: 372 – 289 BCE; other possible dates: 385 – 303/302 BCE) was a Chinesephilosopher who was arguably the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself.

Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou, now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng; originally Zouxian), Shandong province, only thirty kilometres (eighteen miles) south of Qufu, Confucius' birthplace.

He was an itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage, and one of the principal interpreters ofConfucianism. Supposedly, he was a pupil of Confucius' grandson, Zisi. Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform. During the Warring States Period (403–221 BCE), Mencius served as an official and scholar at the Jixia Academy in the State of Qi (1046 BC to 221 BC) from 319 to 312 BCE. He expressed his filial devotion when he took an absence of three years from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother's death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, he retired from public life.

One of the most famous traditional Chinese four-character idioms is 孟母三遷 (pinyin:mèng mǔ sān qiān; Zhuyin/Bopomofo: ㄇㄥˋ ㄇㄨˇ ㄙㄢ ㄑ一ㄢ; literal translation: "Mencius' mother, three moves").

This saying refers to the legend that Mencius' mother moved house three times before finding a location that she felt was suitable for the child's upbringing. As an expression, the idiom refers to the importance of finding the proper environment for raising children.

Mencius's father died when he was very young. His mother Zhang (仉) raised her son alone. They were very poor. At first they lived by a cemetery, where the mother found her son imitating the paid mourners in funeral processions. Therefore the mother decided to move. The next house was near a market in the town. There the boy began to imitate the cries of merchants (merchants were despised in early China). So the mother moved to a house next to a school. Inspired by the scholars and students, Mencius began to study. His mother decided to remain, and Mencius became a scholar.

Mencius' interpretation of Confucianism has generally been considered the orthodox version by subsequent Chinese philosophers, especially by the Neo-Confucians of the Song dynasty. Mencius' disciples included a large number of feudal lords, and he was actually more influential than Confucius had been. The Mencius (also spelled Mengzi or Meng-tzu), a book of his conversations with kings of the time, is one of theFour Books that Zhu Xi grouped as the core of orthodox Neo-Confucian thought. In contrast to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, the Mencius consists of long dialogues, including arguments, with extensive prose.

While Confucius himself did not explicitly focus on the subject of human nature, Mencius asserted the innate goodness of the individual, believing that it was society's influence – its lack of a positive cultivating influence – that caused bad moral character. "He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature" and "the way of learning is none other than finding the lost mind".

His translator James Legge finds a close similarity between Mencius' views on human nature and those in Bishop Butler's Sermons on Human Nature.

Shiva

Shiva (also Siva) (pronounced /ˈʃiːvə/; Sanskrit: शिव, Śiva; IPA: [ˈɕiʋə]; meaning "Auspicious one"), is a major Hindu deity, and the Destroyer or transformer of theTrimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. In the Shaiva tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is seen as the Supreme Being. In the Smarta tradition, he is regarded as one of the five primary forms of God.

Followers of Hinduism who focus their worship upon Shiva are called Shaivites or Shaivas (Sanskrit Śaiva). Shaivism, along with Vaiṣṇava traditions that focus onVishnu and Śākta traditions that focus on the goddess Shakti are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism.

Shiva is usually worshipped in the abstract form of Shiva linga. In images, he is generally represented as immersed in deep meditation or dancing the Tandava upon Maya, the demon of ignorance in his manifestation of Nataraja, the lord of the dance.

The Sanskrit word Shiva (Devanagari: शिव, śiva) is an adjective meaning "auspicious, kind, gracious". As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a name for Rudra.^[6] In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. The adjective śiva, meaning "auspicious", is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.

The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.

Adi Sankara, in his interpretation of the name Shiva, the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama, the thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", or "the One who is not affected by three Gunas of Prakrti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)" or "the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name." Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu sahasranama, further elaborates on that verse: Shiva means "the One who is eternally pure" or "the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas".

Shiva's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great God";mahā = Great + deva = God), Maheśhvara ("Great Lord"; mahā = Great + īśhvara = Lord), and Parameśhvara ("Supreme Lord").

There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradition. Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.

The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Some historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure.How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented. Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows:

Like Vişņu, Śiva is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: Śaivism. Like Vaişņavism, the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.

An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herdingcastes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri. Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya.

Chinese Literature

China has a wealth of classical literature dating from the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (256–770 BCE), including the Classics, whose compilation is attributed to Confucius. Among the most important classics in Chinese literature is the I Ching, the Book of Changes , a manual of divination based on eight trigrams attributed to the mythical emperor Fu Xi. The I Ching is still used by adherents of folk religion. The Classic of Poetry is made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs; 74 minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities; 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies; and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. The Classic of History is a collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It contains the best examples of early Chinese prose. The Record of Rites, a restoration of the original Classic of Rites lost in the 3rd century BC, describes ancient rites and court ceremonies. The Spring and Autumn Annals is a historical record of the principality of Lu, Confucius' native state, from 722 to 479 B.C. – a log of concise entries probably compiled by Confucius himself. The Analects of Confucius (is a book of pithy sayings attributed to Confucius and recorded by his disciples. There were also important Daoist classics that were written in later periods, such as the Huainanzi written by Liu An in the 2nd century BC, during the Han Dynasty. The Huainanzi was also one of the earliest Chinese texts to cover topics of Chinese geography and topography.

In the realm of martial classics, the Art of War by Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC is the first in a tradition of Chinese military treatises such as the Wujing Zongyao written in 1044 AD and the Huolongjing written before 1375. Furthermore, the Art of War is perhaps the first to outline guidelines for effective international diplomacy. The other two works, the Wujing Zongyao and Huolongjing, are invaluable written works for the understanding of the gradual development of early Chinese gunpowder warfare.

The Chinese kept consistent and accurate court records after the year 841 BC, with the beginning of the Gonghe regency of the Western Zhou Dynasty. The earliest known narrative history of China was the Zuo Zhuan, which was compiled no later than 389 BC, and attributed to the blind 5th century BC historian Zuo Qiuming. The Classic of History is thought to have been compiled as far back as the 6th century BC, and was certainly compiled by 300 BC, the latest date for the writing of the Guodian Chu Slips unearthed in a Hubei tomb in 1993. The Classic of History included early information on geography in the chapter of the Yu Gong.^[1] The Bamboo Annals found in 281 AD in the tomb of the King of Wei, who was interred in 296 BC, provide another example; however, unlike the Zuo Zhuan, the authenticity of the early date of the Bamboo Annals is in doubt. Another early text was the political strategy book of the Zhan Guo Ce, compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC, with partial amounts of the text found amongst the 2nd century BC tomb site atMawangdui. The oldest extant dictionary in China is the Erya, dated to the 3rd century BC, anonymously written but with later commentary by the historian Guo Pu (276–324). Other early dictionaries include the Fangyan by Yang Xiong (53 BC – 18 AD) and the Shuowen Jiezi by Xu Shen (58–147 AD). One of the largest was the Kangxi Dictionary compiled by 1716 under the auspices of the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722); it provides definitions for over 47,000 characters.

Although court records and other independent records existed beforehand, the definitive work in early Chinese historical writing was the Shiji (史記/史记), written by the Han Dynasty court historian Sima Qian (145 BC-90 BC). This groundbreaking text laid the foundation for Chinese historiography and the many official Chinese historical texts compiled for each dynasty thereafter. Sima Qian is often compared to the Greek Herodotus in scope and method, because he covered Chinese history from the mythical Xia Dynasty until the contemporary reign of Emperor Wu of Han while retaining an objective and non-biased standpoint. This was often difficult for the official dynastic historians, who used historical works to justify the reign of the current dynasty. He influenced the written works of many Chinese historians, including the works of Ban Gu and Ban Zhao in the 1st and 2nd centuries, and evenSima Guang's 11th-century compilation of the Zizhi Tongjian (資治通鑒/资治通鉴), presented to Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1084 AD. The overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, created for each successive Chinese dynasty up until the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644); China's last dynasty, the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), is not included.

Large encyclopedias were also produced in China through the ages. The Yiwen Leiju encyclopedia was completed by Ouyang Xun in 624 during the Tang Dynasty, with aid from scholars Linghu Defen and Chen Shuda. During the Song Dynasty, the compilation of the Four Great Books of Song (10th century – 11th century), begun by Li Fang and completed by Cefu Yuangui, represented a massive undertaking of written material covering a wide range of different subjects. This included the Extensive Records of the Taiping Era (978), the Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era (983), the Finest Blossoms in the Garden of Literature (986), and the Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau(1013). Although these Song Dynasty Chinese encyclopedias featured millions of written Chinese characters each, their aggregate size paled in comparison to the later Yongle Encyclopedia (1408) of the Ming Dynasty, which contained a total of 50 million Chinese characters.^[2] Even this size was trumped by later Qing Dynasty encyclopedias, such as the printed Gujin Tushu Jicheng (1726), which featured over 100 million written Chinese characters in over 800,000 pages, printed in 60 different copies using copper-metal Chinese movable type printing. Other great encyclopedic writers include the polymath scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and his Dream Pool Essays, the agronomist and inventorWang Zhen (fl. 1290–1333) and his Nongshu, and the minor scholar-official Song Yingxing (1587–1666) and his Tiangong Kaiwu.

Among the earliest and most influential poetic anthologies was the Chuci (楚辭，楚辞) (Songs of Chu), made up primarily of poems ascribed to the semi-legendary Qu Yuan (屈原) (ca. 340-278 B.C.) and his follower Song Yu (宋玉) (fourth century B.C.). The songs in this collection are lyrical and romantic and represent a different tradition from the earlier Shijing. During the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220), this form evolved into the fu (賦，赋) , a poem usually in rhymed verse except for introductory and concluding passages that are in prose, often in the form of questions and answers. The era of disunity that followed the Han period saw the rise of romantic nature poetry, which was heavily influenced by Taoism. The Han Chinese astronomer, mathematician, and inventor Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) was also largely responsible for the early development of Shi (詩，诗) poetry.

Classical poetry reached its zenith during the Tang Dynasty (A.D. 618–907). The early Tang period was best known for its lushi 律诗 (regulated verse), an eight-line poem with five or seven words in each line; Zi(verse following strict rules of prosody); and jueju （绝句）(truncated verse), a four-line poem with five or seven words in each line. The two best-known poets of the period were Li Bai (701–762) and Du Fu (712–770). Li Bai was known for the romanticism of his poetry; Du Fu was seen as a Confucian moralist with a strict sense of duty toward society. Later Tang poets developed greater realism and social criticism and refined the art of narration. Among the best-known of the later Tang poets was Bai Juyi (772–846), whose poems were a critical commentary on the society of his time. Li Yun (789–831) was an eclectic poet, writing mainly "Palace poetry". The Quantangshi, or complete Tang Poems (全唐詩) was not fully compiled until 1705 CE, during the Qing Dynasty.

Subsequent writers of classical poetry lived under the shadow of their Tang predecessors, and although there were many poets in subsequent dynasties, none reached the level of this period.^{[by whom?]} As the classical style of poetry became more stultified, a more flexible poetic medium, the ci (詞，词), arrived on the scene. The ci, a poetic form based on the tunes of popular songs, some of which were of Central Asian origin, was developed to its fullest by the poets of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 AD). The Song era poet Su Shi (1037–1101 AD) mastered the ci, shi, and fu forms of poetry, as well as prose, calligraphy, and painting.

As the ci gradually became more literary and artificial, Sanqu, a more free form based on dramatic arias, developed. The use of sanqu songs in drama marked an important step in the development of vernacular literature.